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Logic is the systematic study of the form of arguments. In logic, a valid argument has a specific relation of logical support between the assumptions of the argument and its conclusion. Thus, the validity of an argument is decided by its form, not content. Definition - What does Programming Logic mean? Programming logic is a fundamental construct that's applied to computer science in a variety of comprehensive ways. Programming logic involves logical operations on hard data that works according to logical principles and quantifiable results. Techopedia explains Programming Logic.
The Nature of
Philosophy and
Logic
Abstract: The disciplines of philosophy and logic are defined and briefly described with mention of some representative problems.
- What is Philosophy?
- The derivation of the word “philosophy” is from the Greek roots: philo Conan exiles star metal locations map. — love of, affinity for, liking of.As in the words …philander — to engage in love affairs frivolouslyphilanthropy — to love helping othersphilately — to “love” collecting postage stamps—phile — one having a love for, e.g. an anglophile as one who loves English culture.philology — having a liking for wordssophia — wisdomAs in the words …sophist — one who loves knowledgesophomore — one who thinks he's wisesophisticated — one who is knowledgeable
- A suggested definition for “philosophy”: Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the principles and presuppositions of any field of inquiry.
- Psychologically, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or a calling to answer, or to ask, or even to comment upon certain peculiar problems (i.e., problems such as those usually in the main branches of philosophy discussed below).
- Eventually we must despair of an abstract definition and turn to what philosophers do — i.e., explore the practice of philosophy.
- Psychologically, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or a calling to answer, or to ask, or even to comment upon certain peculiar problems (i.e., problems such as those usually in the main branches of philosophy discussed below).
- The derivation of the word “philosophy” is from the Greek roots:
- The Main Branches of Philosophy are divided as to the nature of the questions asked in each area. The integrity of these divisions cannot be rigidly maintained since many problems encompass more than one area of inquiry.
- Axiologyclose ×the study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria and metaphysical status.The analysis of values to determine their meaning, characteristics, origins, types, criteria, and epistemological status.
Peter A. Angeles, A Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Harper, 1981), 22.- Characterization of some features of the definition:
Nature of value: is value a fulfillment of desire, pleasure, a preference, or simply some kind of human interest?
Criteria of value: is there no accounting for taste(de gustibus non (est) disputandum)close ×or can rules and standards of values be set?“There is no disputing about tastes.” This Latin phrase implies that a person's values cannot be logically justified.
Status of value: how are values related to scientific facts? What ultimate worth do human values have, if any? Would the universe have any value if human beings did not exist? - Axiology is sub-divided into … Ethicsclose ×The study of value in human behavior; the study of moral problems which seeks to discover how one ought to act, not how one does in fact act or how one thinks one should actThe study of the concepts involved in practical reasoning: good, right, duty, obligation, virtue, freedom, rationality, choice. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (London: OUP, 1994), 126.
Usually, in philosophy, morals or mores (customs of a society) are viewed as the descriptive practices of a society: what people actually believe about morality.
Ethics, then, is considered prescriptive or normative: what people really ought to do, apart from what they usually do.
What is the nature of the life of excellence?
What is the ultimate worth of the goals you seek? (Once you obtain your goals, so what?)
What specific courses of conduct, in keeping with the goals you seek, will help lead to a life of excellence? What are the roles of pleasure, duty, self-realization, usefulness, goodness, justice, or acting in accordance with your (biological) nature?Aestheticsclose ×the study of value in the arts — the study of the beauty, sublimity, and principles of taste, harmony, order, and pattern.The study of the feelings, concepts, and judgments arising from out of appreciation of the arts or of the wider class of objects considered moving, or beautiful, or sublime. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (London: OUTP, 1994), 8.
Are beautiful shapes and sounds describable mathematically as Pythagoras thought?
Does art relate to ethics? Is there a truth in aesthetic representation?
Is emotion an essential part of artistic appreciation?
- Characterization of some features of the definition:
- Epistemology:close ×the study of knowledge, in particular, the study of the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge.The Theory of knowledge. Its central questions include the origin of knowledge; the place of experience in generating knowledge, and the place of reason in doing so; the relationship between knowledge and certainty, and between knowledge and the impossibility of error, the possibility of universal scepticism; and the changing forms of knowledge that arise from new conceptualizations of the world. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (London: OUP, 1994), 123.
- Epistemology is the investigation of the origin, structure, methods, and validity of knowledge.
- As an example of orders of knowledge, consider the statement:
“The earth is round.”
This can be successively translated depending upon context as …
But what of the height of mountains, the depth of oceans, and so forth? Even if we surveyed exactly the earth's shape, the process of surveying would itself measurably change the shape of the earth — e.g., footprints and indentations formed by our measuring instruments.The earth is spherical.The earth is an oblate spheroid (i.e., it's flattened at the poles).
In practice, can the exact shape ever be actually known? (No, but even though we can probably never know the exact shape of the earth at any given moment, we do know the earth has an exact shape.) - Consider two well-known epistemological problems: the first is not solvable, the second is solvable.
First: Bertrand Russell's Five Minute World Hypothesis: Suppose the earth were created from scratch five minutes ago, complete with memory images, history books, geological records, etc. That is, at the moment of creation, the universe would have all the evidence that it was billions of years old already “packed in.”
How could it ever be known that the creation of the universe did not begin five minutes ago? Russell writes:“There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that ‘remembered’ a wholly unreal past. There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore nothing that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis that the world began five minutes ago.
Russell states that he is not suggesting that this is a serious hypothesis. As a skeptical hypothesis, he says it is possible, but quite uninteresting.
Hence the occurrences which are called knowledge of the past are logically independent of the past; they are wholly analysable into present contents, which might theoretically, be just what they are even if no past had existed. I am not suggesting that the non-existent of the past should be entertained as a serious hypothesis. Like all sceptical hypotheses, it is logically tenable, but uninteresting.” [Bertrand Russell, The Analysis of Mind (rpt. 1922 London: George Allen & Unwin, 1921), 159-160.]
Another way of explaining Russell's hypothesis is to consider that there is no way to disprove scientifically that the universe is being created ex nihilio (i.e., from nothing) moment-by-moment by an all-powerful God.
Second: Suppose everything in the universe were to expand uniformly so that eventually everything in existence was one hundred times larger in size. How could we ever know it?
At first glance, it might seem that this problem of scale would be unsolvable. As objects proportionally increase in size their volume and mass increase by the cube. So, roughly speaking, if the laws of chemistry and physics remain the same, objects on earth one hundred times greater in size would be crushed by their own weight.
So, on earth, there's a limit to the size animals of animals as well as a limit to the height of skyscrapers. (For example, the blue whale, the largest animal on earth, could not survive without the buoyancy provided by the sea.) If such an expansion of size and weight were possible, then the scientific laws of the universe would have to change.
- Epistemology is the investigation of the origin, structure, methods, and validity of knowledge.
- Ontologyclose ×or Metaphysics:(1) The study of the essential characteristics of Being in itself apart from the study of particular existing things … (2) the order and structure of reality in the broadest sense possible … (3) the nature of ultimate Being … (4) asks the question “What does ‘to be, ’ ‘to exist mean?’ … Ontology has been used as a synonym for metaphysics … Peter A. Angeles, A Dictionary of PhilosophyLondon: Harper & Row, 1981), 198.close ×the study of what is “really” real. Metaphysics deals with the so-called first principles of the natural order or the ultimate generalizations available to the human intellect.Any enquiry that raises questions about reality that lie beyond or behind those capable of being tackled by the methods of science. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (London: OUP, 1994), 240.
- E.g. Since ideas actually have no size shape, color, and so forth, my idea of the Empire State Building is quite as small as my idea of a book.
Do ideas exist in the same manner that physical objects exist? - Consider the truths of mathematics. How and where do they exist?
In what manner does a geometric figure exist? — After all, points have no size and lines have no width. - What is spirit or soul made of? Or matter? Or space? Or a vacuum?
- E.g. Since ideas actually have no size shape, color, and so forth, my idea of the Empire State Building is quite as small as my idea of a book.
- To Which of these branches of philosophy do you think logic belongs?
- Logic: close ×the study of the methods and principles used in distinguishing correct from incorrect reasoning.The general science of inference. Deductive logic, in which a conclusion follows from a set of premises is distinguished from inductive logic, which studies the way in which premises may support a conclusion without entailing it. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy/cite> (London: OUP, 1994), 221.
- Our knowledge is interrelated by logic. It forms the fabric of the sciences by ensuring the consistency of the statements that compose them.
- Hence, logic is usually considered a subdivision of epistemology, although, of course, logic is used in all areas of philosophy.
- Logic:
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Recommended Reading
Lee Archie and John G. Archie, “The Nature of Philosophical Inquiry,” in Reading for Philosophical Inquiry (Greenwood, SC: Open Source, 2006). 31 pp. Philosophical questions are characterized, many ways of thinking are discussed, and the main divisions of philosophy are outlined with some some typical philosophical problems illustrated. (This website).
Wikipedia contributors, “Types of Logic,” Wikipedia. Logic is defined and the main types types of logic are characterized. (accessed September 1, 2020).
Wikipedia contributors, “Branches of Philosophy,” Wikipedia. A general overview of a collection of a number of types of philosophy is outlined The branches of philosophy are characterized with examples. (accessed September 1, 2020).
Philosophy of logic
- Logic as a discipline
- Features and problems of logic
- Issues and developments in the philosophy of logic
- Meaning and truth
- Problems of ontology
- Logic and other disciplines
- Technical disciplines
- Human disciplines
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Jakko Hintikka was a Professor of Philosophy at Boston University. He was known as the main architect of game-theoretical semantics and of the interrogative approach to inquiry and also as one of the architects..
Philosophy of logic, the study, from a philosophical perspective, of the nature and types of logic, including problems in the field and the relation of logic to mathematics and other disciplines.
What Is Logical Reasoning
The termlogic comes from the Greek word logos. The variety of senses that logos possesses may suggest the difficulties to be encountered in characterizing the nature and scope of logic. Among the partial translations of logos, there are “sentence,” “discourse,” “reason,” “rule,” “ratio,” “account” (especially the account of the meaning of an expression), “rational principle,” and “definition.” Not unlike this proliferation of meanings, the subject matter of logic has been said to be the “laws of thought,” “the rules of right reasoning,” “the principles of valid argumentation,” “the use of certain words labelled ‘logical constants’,” “truths (true propositions) based solely on the meanings of the terms they contain,” and so on.
Logic as a discipline
Nature and varieties of logic
It is relatively easy to discern some order in the above embarrassment of explanations. Some of the characterizations are in fact closely related to each other. When logic is said, for instance, to be the study of the laws of thought, these laws cannot be the empirical (or observable) regularities of actual human thinking as studied in psychology; they must be laws of correct reasoning, which are independent of the psychological idiosyncrasies of the thinker. Moreover, there is a parallelism between correct thinking and valid argumentation: valid argumentation may be thought of as an expression of correct thinking, and the latter as an internalization of the former. In the sense of this parallelism, laws of correct thought will match those of correct argumentation. The characteristic mark of the latter is, in turn, that they do not depend on any particular matters of fact. Whenever an argument that takes a reasoner from p to q is valid, it must hold independently of what he happens to know or believe about the subject matter of p and q. The only other source of the certainty of the connection between p and q, however, is presumably constituted by the meanings of the terms that the propositions p and q contain. These very same meanings will then also make the sentence “If p, then q” true irrespective of all contingent matters of fact. More generally, one can validly argue from p to q if and only if the implication “If p, then q” is logically true--i.e., true in virtue of the meanings of words occurring in p and q, independently of any matter of fact.
Logic may thus be characterized as the study of truths based completely on the meanings of the terms they contain.
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In order to accommodate certain traditional ideas within the scope of this formulation, the meanings in question may have to be understood as embodying insights into the essences of the entities denoted by the terms, not merely codifications of customary linguistic usage.
The following proposition (from Aristotle), for instance, is a simple truth of logic: “If sight is perception, the objects of sight are objects of perception.” Its truth can be grasped without holding any opinions as to what, in fact, the relationship of sight to perception is. What is needed is merely an understanding of what is meant by such terms as “if–then,” “is,” and “are,” and an understanding that “object of” expresses some sort of relation.
The logical truth of Aristotle’s sample proposition is reflected by the fact that “The objects of sight are objects of perception” can validly be inferred from “Sight is perception.”
What Is Logical Meme
Many questions nevertheless remain unanswered by this characterization. The contrast between matters of fact and relations between meanings that was relied on in the characterization has been challenged, together with the very notion of meaning. Even if both are accepted, there remains a considerable tension between a wider and a narrower conception of logic. According to the wider interpretation, all truths depending only on meanings belong to logic. It is in this sense that the word logic is to be taken in such designations as “epistemic logic” (logic of knowledge), “doxastic logic” (logic of belief), “deontic logic” (logic of norms), “the logic of science,” “inductive logic,” and so on. According to the narrower conception, logical truths obtain (or hold) in virtue of certain specific terms, often called logical constants. Whether they can be given an intrinsic characterization or whether they can be specified only by enumeration is a moot point. It is generally agreed, however, that they include (1) such propositional connectives as “not,” “and,” “or,” and “if–then” and (2) the so-called quantifiers “(∃x)” (which may be read: “For at least one individual, call it x, it is true that”) and “(∀x)” (“For each individual, call it x, it is true that”). The dummy letter x is here called a bound (individual) variable. Its values are supposed to be members of some fixed class of entities, called individuals, a class that is variously known as the universe of discourse, the universe presupposed in an interpretation, or the domain of individuals. Its members are said to be quantified over in “(∃x)” or “(∀x).” Furthermore, (3) the concept of identity (expressed by =) and (4) some notion of predication (an individual’s having a property or a relation’s holding between several individuals) belong to logic. The forms that the study of these logical constants take are described in greater detail in the article logic, in which the different kinds of logical notation are also explained. Here, only a delineation of the field of logic is given.
When the terms in (1) alone are studied, the field is called propositional logic. When (1), (2), and (4) are considered, the field is the central area of logic that is variously known as first-order logic, quantification theory, lower predicate calculus, lower functional calculus, or elementary logic. If the absence of (3) is stressed, the epithet “without identity” is added, in contrast to first-order logic with identity, in which (3) is also included.
Borderline cases between logical and nonlogical constants are the following (among others): (1) Higher order quantification, which means quantification not over the individuals belonging to a given universe of discourse, as in first-order logic, but also over sets of individuals and sets of n-tuples of individuals. (Alternatively, the properties and relations that specify these sets may be quantified over.) This gives rise to second-order logic. The process can be repeated. Quantification over sets of such sets (or of n Naruto ultimate ninja heroes 3 ppsspp iso for pc. -tuples of such sets or over properties and relations of such sets) as are considered in second-order logic gives rise to third-order logic; and all logics of finite order form together the (simple) theory of (finite) types. (2) The membership relation, expressed by ∊, can be grafted on to first-order logic; it gives rise to set theory. (3) The concepts of (logical) necessity and (logical) possibility can be added.
What Is Logic's Real Name
This narrower sense of logic is related to the influential idea of logical form. In any given sentence, all of the nonlogical terms may be replaced by variables of the appropriate type, keeping only the logical constants intact. The result is a formula exhibiting the logical form of the sentence. If the formula results in a true sentence for any substitution of interpreted terms (of the appropriate logical type) for the variables, the formula and the sentence are said to be logically true (in the narrower sense of the expression).
What Is Logic Model
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